UNIT 6 INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY: AN OVERVIEW

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 India’s Foreign Policy under Nehru in the Formative Years
6.2.1 Tilt in Non-alignment
6.2.2 India-China Border War
6.3 Foreign Policy after Nehru
6.4 Indira Gandhi’s Tenure
6.4.1 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1971
6.4.2 Simla Agreement
6.4.3 Nuclear Test of 1974
6.4.4 Indira Gandhi’s Second Tenure
6.5 Rajiv Gandhi and the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka
6.6 Narasimha Rao (1991-1996)
6.7 India- US Relations
6.8 Foreign Policy Developments and the NDA Government
6.8.1 Nuclear Weapons
6.8.2 Attempts to Improve Relations
6.9 Summary
6.10 Exercises
 
6.1 INTRODUCTION

We have so far studied policy decision-making at the institutional level in the government as well
as shaping of policy at the social and political level. With intense interaction between the government,
institutions and socio-political level actors ultimately the Indian foreign policy is made. The outcome
of the policy process, “foreign policy” is the concrete policy directed towards a foreign nation or
external policy issue.
What has been the outcome of policy process in the last fifty-six years after the independence? In
India, from an ordinary citizen to the Prime Minister and in abroad from foreign government
officials to informed public have been characterising the Indian foreign policy as Non-Aligned.
But even today, in the absence of an alternative policy framework, the Indian political class has
been describing Indian foreign policy within the framework of non-alignment. In this unit we will
know as to how non-alignment policy began, worked and progressed during the period since
independence. This unit will also analyse the ups and downs in India’s relations with major world
powers as well as neighbours.

6.2 INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY UNDER NEHRU IN THE
FORMATIVE YEARS

Indians secured their control over nation’s foreign policy only after their independence from the
British colonial rule in 1947. A newly independent India was plunged into the world affairs when
the external environment was of the Cold War between the two super powers—the United
States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR)—both were on the winning side in the the Second
World War. Even before the independence in August 1947, an interim government under Nehru’s
leadership had been put in place in September 1946.
The first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru was in a dilemma. Though western educated,
he was personally attracted to the Marxist thought. But any alignment with the one or the other
bloc would have meant loss of newly won independence. Loss of India’s independence in the
decision-making even slightly was an unacceptable proposition to him. Thus, he opted to keep
India away from both the power blocs, and follow an independent foreign policy. This came to
be known as the policy of non-alignment.
He had formulated the basic policy outlines in a broadcast from New Delhi on 7 September,
1946 in which he laid out certain foreign policy goals. He was then only an interim prime minister,
as independence had not even been announced. These goals included: end of colonialism and
racism, independence from power blocs and close ties with China and Asian neighbours. In his
own words: “We shall take full part in international conferences as a free nation with our own
policy and not merely as a satellite of another nation…. We are particularly interested in the
emancipation of colonial and dependent countries and peoples, and in the recognition in theory
and practice of equal opportunities for all races.”
Thus, non-alignment with either of the military blocs was Nehru’s answer to the dilemma he and
the nation faced. Non-alignment was an intellectual coup on the part of Nehru. It was in a sense
learning from history. Soon after the independence the first American president George Washington
had asked his countrymen while laying down his office in 1796: “It is our true policy to steer clear
of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world….”. Instead, he advocated that the
new Republic should cultivate “just and amicable feelings toward all” nations.
Primarily by non-alignment Nehru meant not getting entangled with any military alliances. Soon
after the end of the Second World War, there were military alliances floated by the United States
and the Soviet Union. The US promoted North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the
Soviet Union had to counter it by Warsaw Pact. While these were the competing military alliances
at the global level, these two super powers also promoted regional alliances to attract the newly
independent nations in Asia and Africa.
Second, non-alignment did not mean neutrality in world politics. Neutrality has a meaning that is
truly relevant during the times of war. But non-alignment is a positive thought; it meant that India
retained the independence of decision making on an issue that affected her interests. There was
no a priori commitment to support one or the other nation involved in a crisis.
Thus, in India’s neighbourhood the US promoted South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO)
and Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) in the 1950s. Both these organisations were ostensibly
meant to fight against communism exported by the Soviet Union. But India’s neighbour, Pakistan
joined the treaty organisations primarily to get military aid from the US to fight against India. The
membership of Pakistan of these treaties brought the Cold War to the doors of India aggravating
tensions between India and Pakistan. The American weapons and support generated because of
their membership of military alliances also complicated the India-US relations.
This was brought out very clearly over the question of Kashmir issue raised in the United Nations
(UN) Security Council (SC). Nehru had great faith in the international organisations and their
sense of justice. It was Nehru who had taken to the UN the crisis created by Pakistan’s war
against Jammu and Kashmir in 1948. He never imagined that the Kashmir question would become
a matter seen through the prism of Cold War.
The UN ordered a cease-fire and asked Pakistan to withdraw its forces. The Indian PM had
then given an assurance to hold a plebiscite to decide as to whether Kashmiris desired to join
India or join Pakistan. This brings out the faith Nehru had in the fairness of the UN.
But in practice the issue got entangled in the global Cold War between the US and the Soviet
Union. Once the issue became part of Cold War rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union,
Pakistan with its military alliance with the US, began to raise the Kashmir issue in the UN SC
now and then. The SC instead of declaring Pakistan as an aggressor and seeking to vacate its
aggression, kept the issue as an instrument to pressurise India politically.
Nehru had maintained close ties with the British Commonwealth of Nations by enabling the
Indian Republic as a member. But Britain was not interested in finding a solution to the Kashmir
crisis. Another power that could have helped India in resolving the conflict over J & K was the
US. But during his first visit to that country in 1949, Nehru had disappointed Dean Acheson then
Secretary of State. Dean Acheson states in his memoirs: “When finally, I urged Pandit Nehru to
help me by a frank discussion of a practicable solution of the trouble over Kashmir, I got a
curious combination of a public speech and flashes of anger and deep dislike of his opponents….
I was convinced that Nehru and I were not destined to have a pleasant personal relationship.”
Acheson’s successor in office, John Foster Dulles did not turn out to be friendly to India either.
By then Dulles had come under the influence of pactomania in promoting military pacts. He
desired that India join the military alliances promoted by the US. Nehru’s non-alignment policy
was obviously against it. Hence, Dulles said that non-alignment is immoral as it failed to take a
firm stand against godless communism.
Under these circumstances the Soviet Union came to India’s rescue. It saw an opportunity to
befriend non-aligned nations in the predicament faced by India in the UN SC. The US was
guided by the British policy of divide and rule; the US, in that early period, went along with
Britain on the issues relating to the latter’s erstwhile colonies. Thus, when Western powers like
the US and UK began to vote on the side of Pakistan on the question of Kashmir, the Soviet
Union exercised its veto power to save the Indian interests from Cold War politics.
6.2.1 Tilt in Non-alignment

The Soviet Union helped India to get over the efforts by the western powers to embarrass India.
Now you do not embarrass a friend who comes to your rescue. That is a norm in interpersonal
affairs; so is that in international affairs. The test of this principle came during the SC discussion
on the Soviet military intervention in Hungary in 1956.
There was an uprising against the Soviet domination of Hungary where the people were in favour
of democracy. However, the Soviet Union militarily intervened in that country to see that a prodemocracy
government was removed and a pro-communist government was installed. The
question of the Soviet military intervention came before the UN. The General Assembly discussed
the Hungarian crisis. There was a five-power resolution calling upon the Soviet Union to withdraw
its troops. India voted against the resolution. This approach of India was widely disapproved in
the country as well as abroad. Was India supporting the Soviet military intervention? Nehru took
pains to explain rather unconvincingly that the circumstances and compulsions under which India
voted against the resolution. His main ground was that the resolution demanded that “elections
should be held in Hungary under the supervision of the United Nations.” That could be later used
to demand similar elections in Kashmir. But the fact that India did oppose the military intervention
did not miss altogether the world opinion. Thomas A. Bailey in his A Diplomatic History of the
American People records that “even ‘neutralist’ states like India were moved to protest against
the brutality of the Soviets.”
6.2.2 India-China Border War

The strengths and weaknesses of the non-alignment were also brought out during the next major
crisis in Indian foreign policy in the background of the Chinese aggression of October 1962.
Peace and friendship with China was a cornerstone of the Indian foreign policy as formulated
and executed by Nehru with assistance from his friend and Defence Minister, Krishna Menon.
As a matter of fact both of them never envisaged a threat from the Communist China. They
mainly focussed on Pakistan’s threat to India’s security.
Nehru thought of resolving the territorial crisis by political negotiations rather than by the use of
force. He never realised that military strength enhanced the ability to negotiate political settlements
amongst nations. This had led him to approach the UN in response to Pakistan’s proxy war in
Jammu and Kashmir in 1947-48, when, as a matter of fact, the Indian army was able to throw
out invading Pakistani army from the Kashmir.
In 1954 he had conceded the Chinese claim over Tibet by accepting its suzerainty over it, when
India signed an agreement for trade with the “Tibetan region of China.” India gave up its rights
and privileges in Tibet without gaining any reciprocal concessions from China. The first step
toward this direction was taken by China by ousting India’s influence in Tibet completely. The
Chinese People’s Liberation Army began raids in Tibet, with China declaring Tibet as an integral
part of its territory. In continuation of the policy of Indo-Chinese friendship, India signed the
Sino-Tibetan Agreement on May 23, 1951, which sealed Tibet’s fate permanently. Chinese troops
from then on were stationed on the borders of India, Burma, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, and
the adjacent areas, whereas India withdrew all her military, postal, commercial, telephonic and
telegraphic services and equipment from the northern borders stationed for over a century. To
pacify the Chinese, Nehru concluded the Panchsheel (Five Principles) Agreement with Chou
En-lai in 1954, based on the principles of mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty,
non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality and peaceful co-existence.
The Panchsheel agreement was a shoddy attempt to hide India’s inability to oppose China’s
expansionist designs, and to lure China into a promise to restrain its territorial ambitions. That
China had no intention of abiding by this agreement was evident from the build-up of military
detachments in the Aksai-Chin area, construction of roads within the Indian territory along the
Sinkiang border, and the shelling of Indian outposts intermittently. The Chinese maps were already
showing the entire North East Frontier Agency (a part of India) as Chinese territory.
Despite China’s military operations, Nehru informed the Parliament in 1957 that there was “not
the remotest chance of India coming in to any kind of military conflict with China or the Soviet
Union. India is so situated geographically that it would not be easy to attack her.” Within two
years, in 1959, Tibet was run over by the Chinese forces and Dalai Lama had to undertake an
extremely dangerous and extraordinarily hazardous journey to escape the Chinese assault.
Three years later, in October 1962, the Chinese crushed the Indian forces, occupied strategic
outposts, and destroyed India’s border defences. The US Ambassador, John Kenneth Galbraith
in Ambassador’s Journal described India’s helplessness in resisting Chinese attack:
Their (India) air arm is not highly effective. The cities of the Ganges Plain are accessible
from the airfields of Tibet. There is no chance that Indians could retaliate to China
and there is nothing in Tibet. And there is no technical chance that we could accord
them immediately the protection that Nehru asked.
Nehru could have exercised flexibility in non-alignment in defence of India’s national interest.
Could he not have taken the help of the US, which was, anti-China then and which came to
India’s help anyway briefly after October 1962 Sino-Indian war? India took the diplomatic and
political help of the Soviet Union over Pakistan’s war in J & K even if it was extended without
India soliciting it. If India had solicited the US help in 1954 during the Tibetan crisis, the US help
in meeting the Chinese challenge in October 1962 could have been substantially bigger and more
effective. It would have given a correct image to non-alignment to prove that it allowed a country
to seek assistance from any country when its national security is threatened rather than making
India always tilt towards one Super Power—the Soviet Union. These are of course big if and but
of history. But this showed limitations of the Indian foreign policy in the formative years of the
Indian Republic.
Nehru’s reliance on the “doctrine of defence by friendship” vis-a-vis China was a failure. Indians
were all surprised at the failure of Nehru’s foreign policy. Nehru himself became a disillusioned
man. His Defence Minister, Krishna Menon was forced to resign from the Congress Party. J.
Bandopadhyaya in the Making of India’s Foreign Policy concludes: “It was Nehru’s apparently
idealistic interpretation of India-China relations that was probably responsible for the absence
of… strategic planning.”

6.3 FOREIGN POLICY AFTER NEHRU

In the 1960s one major question that was widely discussed was ‘After Nehru, Who?’ Nehru
died in 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri succeeded him. His tenure was short as he died in Tashkent in
January 1966 after signing the Tashkent Agreement with Ayub Khan, military dictator of Pakistan.
In India’s foreign policy, Shastri has to be remembered for a major change he brought about in
the shifting of emphasis from international events more to the immediate neighbourhood of India.
It was Nehru’s personality that made him to think in terms of India playing a major role in
international affairs. Nehru perceived a larger role for India in international affairs, rather much
bigger than then resources permitted. He played a major role in Bandung (Indonesia) Conference
in 1955. He was responsible for introducing newly liberated communist China’s premier Chou
en lai. He was in the forefront of getting communist China seated as the legitimate member of the
UN in place of Nationalist China, which had fled to Taiwan after the communists captured power
in Mainland China in October 1949. It was Nehru who again played a role as a go between
China and the US during the Korean War.
In contrast Shastri focussed on India’s immediate neighbourhood aimed at improving relations
within South Asia. However, his perceived weakness led to conflicts and war in 1965 with
Pakistan. First it was in the Rann of Kutch where a dispute was created to claim Indian territory.
The dispute was referred to arbitration by mutual consent.
The Rann of Kutch is a marshy land between West Pakistan and Gujarat. It was Pakistan’s case
that Rann of Kutch was a lake and according to the international law, the boundary should run in
the middle of the lake. On the other hand, India claimed that it is a marshy land and the boundaries
between Sindh and India were well demarcated. But Pakistan was intruding into the area since
1956. In 1965 hostilities broke out between the two countries in the area. At the intervention of
then British PM Harold Wilson, an agreement was reached to refer the dispute to arbitration if
both the parties were unable to reach an agreement. Eventually, as the two countries could not
agree on a solution, arbitrators awarded 900 square Km to Pakistan—one tenth of their original
claim.
The perception of a weak India continued; in the meanwhile China had exploded a nuclear bomb
in October 1964 without India reacting to it immediately. Instead the non-aligned conference that
met in Cairo in 1964 sent a delegation to Beijing to urge upon China to desist from going nuclear.
The Chinese authorities even refused to receive the delegation.
Another major crisis faced by Shastri was the India-Pakistan War of 1965. The modus operandi
of this war was also similar to the first war in 1947-48. Perceived weakness of India, coupled
with the hope of Kashmiris rising in revolt against India, made Ayub Khan bold to launch the
War. In this war while Pakistan was able to capture some territory in J & K, Indians opened a
second front of its choosing by moving towards Lahore.
The US was then busy with its war in Vietnam. Hence the Johnson administration did not act
beyond imposing an arms embargo against both the countries as they were allegedly fighting with
American weapons. However, the Soviet Union was keen to use its good offices in resolving the
crisis. It had come closer to India by taking a neutral stand over the Sino-Indian border war of
1962. But the Russian leaders were keen that they be perceived as neutral in the Indo-Pak war.
The Russian leaders also desired to befriend Pakistan or at least wean it away from the US.
Then Soviet premier Kosygin invited Lal Bahadur Shastri and Ayub Khan to Tashkent to find a
solution to the war and both the leaders accepted the offer. After a great deal of bargaining and
arms twisting by the Soviet premier, Kosygin, the warring leaders signed the Tashkent agreement.
Under the agreement India had to give away the territories captured by the army, which was
opposed by the opposition parties.

6.4 MRS. INDIRA GANDHI’S TENURE

Mrs. Indira Gandhi succeeded Lal Bahadur Shastri as the PM. After Pandit Nehru, Indira Gandhi
had the longest tenure, as the nation’s PM. Indira Gandhi, after the 1970 elections, was able to
consolidate her power in the country. By any standard of reckoning, the major foreign policy
event in her term was the Bangladesh war fought with Pakistan in 1971.
To understand this major event in Indian history it is necessary to summarise the background of
the crisis. In the only democratic election held in Pakistan in December 1970, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) won a majority (88 out of 144) in West Pakistan while Awami
League won an absolute majority in East Pakistan by winning 167 seats. In accordance with the
democratic theory, then military dictator in Pakistan Yahya Khan should have invited the leader
of Awami League, Sheikh Mujibur Rehman to form the government. But the manipulative Bhutto
was unwilling to have a Bengali as the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Yahya Khan was also unwilling to transfer power to a Bangladeshi. Instead of transferring power,
Yahya Khan imposed martial law, appointed Lt. General Tikka Khan as Governor and sent army
to quell the movement in East Pakistan in March 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, popular leader
of the Awami Party was arrested and imprisoned in West Pakistan. The enraged population of
East Pakistan then came out on the streets to denounce military dictatorship.
The military indulged in one of the worst human rights violations in the world history. The intellectuals
and supporters of the party were massacred; women were raped and there was a systematic
genocide of Hindus in East Pakistan. It was a sheer war of hatred. According to the New York
Times the Pakistani army painted “big yellow Hs on the Hindu shops” to be attacked and
destroyed. As a result over 12 million Bangladeshis, Muslims and Hindus, came to West Bengal,
mainly to Calcutta, as refugees. Feeding such large number was an economic strain on India but
added to that was the law and order problem for the government in West Bengal.
Indira Gandhi, adept in political gamble, went on a tour of Western countries to inform the
leaders of the human tragedy in East Pakistan. The US was then secretly engaged in opening up
relations with China in which Pakistan had played a crucial role as a go between. At the same
time she had also asked the army to prepare for military intervention. The army wanted the
intervention to take place in the winter, as the passes in the Himalayas would be snowbound and
Pakistan’s ally China could not militarily intervene in the crisis.
Pakistan, to pre-empt India and force her to divert troops to west, attacked on 3 December
1971. India intervened in the East in a massive way. The resulting war ended in the liberation of
East Pakistan and the birth of Bangladesh as an independent country. The Indian forces were at
their best when they accepted the surrender of over 90,000 Pakistani troops in the war.
The friends of Pakistan, especially the US, were upset over the Indian victory in the war as it
considered the Indian victory as that of the Soviet Union. Nixon, according to his memoirs, was
keen to save West Pakistan from destruction by India. Thus, to save West Pakistan, he asked
nuclear powered warship Enterprise to move to Bay of Bengal. In a well-coordinated move,
Soviet Union sent its nuclear powered ship to follow the US warship. The Soviet Union was the
main supporter of India in the War often using its veto power in the UN Security Council to nullify
the US resolutions condemning India and asking her to withdraw armed forces from East Pakistan.

6.4.1 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1971

A pro-Soviet tilt had already set in during the Nehru period in the practice of non-alignment. The
1970s were such that globally non-alignment movement had become a force sympathetic to the
8
Soviet Union. Cuba, as a member of the non-aligned movement, even introduced the idea that
the Soviet Union is a ‘natural ally’ of the non- aligned nations. This he did at the 1979 NAM
Summit held at Havana. The tilt became evident in the Indo-Soviet relations during the period.
Before the Bangladesh war of 1971, India signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the
Soviet Union. Under the treaty, the two countries agreed on “immediate mutual consultations” in
the event of either country facing a military threat and adopt appropriate effective measures.
The treaty expressed the Soviet Union’s acceptance of India’s policy of non-alignment. However,
the treaty was criticised by the US as an end of India’s non-alignment. But the treaty was India’s
answer to then changing global scene. Since 1962 Pakistan and China had befriended each other
against India on the theory that enemy’s enemy is a friend. The US was already close to Pakistan
with the military alliances binding their relations. Richard Nixon, the US President, was actively
working to establish relations with China aimed at balancing the perceived power of the Soviet
Union.

6.4.2 Simla Agreement, 1972

The Indo-Pakistan war of 1971 was brought to an end by signing the Simla Agreement between
Gandhi and Bhutto. Under the agreement both the countries “resolved to settle their differences
by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations.” They also agreed to respect each other’s
national unity and territorial integrity and not to assist or encourage any acts, which could affect
the maintenance of peace in the region. Apart from these expressions of idealistic thought in
concrete terms, Pakistan regained all its territories lost in West Pakistan in the War and also
secured freedom for Prisoners of War taken in Bangladesh. POWs were actually released in
1973 after India obtained consent of Bangladesh. India gained assurances of good behaviour,
which Pakistan was incapable of in practice.
The opposition party, particularly then Jan Sangh-predecessor of the present Bharatiya Janata
Party, was very critical of the terms of the Simla agreement. Atal Behari Vajpayee who became
the External Affairs Minister in the subsequent Janata Party government under Morarji Desai
hinted in April 1978 that the agreement became possible only after “secret and midnight”
understanding between Gandhi and Bhutto.

6.4.3 Nuclear Test of 1974

Mrs. Gandhi will also be remembered by the nation for her determination to take nation on the
path of a major power. Nehru had an idealistic approach to power. But Mrs. Gandhi was realistic
to a great extent. Nehru said in 1954 in the Lok Sabha: “If you peep in the future and if nothing
goes wrong—wars and like—the obvious fourth country in the world (after US, Soviet Union
and China) is India.” But Gandhi translated his idealism in action. One such act was her conducting
nuclear test in May 1974 in Pokharan.
Ever since China conducted its nuclear tests in October 1964, there was domestic pressure on
the Indian government to conduct nuclear tests. However, Lal Bahadur Shastri was silent on the
demand. But his External Affairs Minister, Swaran Singh had said in the Lok Sabha in May 1966
that India had the capability to acquire nuclear capability in a reasonably short time. Apparently,
Shastri as the PM in late 1964 had authorised Atomic Energy Commission to work on the bomb
design.
The test conducted by Indira Gandhi was to demonstrate the Indian nuclear capability though it
was claimed to be a peaceful nuclear explosion (PNE). Her logic ran like this. During the
Bangladesh war in 1971 the US had used its nuclear powered enterprise to blackmail India to
desist from attacking West Pakistan. Earlier, when Henry Kissinger, President Nixon’s National
Security Adviser was in India, he had informed the Indian policy makers that India should not
bank on the US if China intervenes in the likely conflict between India and Pakistan. This was
contrary to the prevailing Nixon Doctrine which had promised the US protection if any nonnuclear
nation was threatened by a nuclear weapons state, in this case China. Thus Gandhi
desired to make India self reliant in her security.
6.4.4 Indira Gandhi’s Second Tenure

Mrs. Gandhi was briefly out of power when the first ever non-Congress government came to
power in 1977 under Morarji Desai as the PM. Charan Singh succeeded him for a six-month
term in 1979. Mrs. Gandhi replaced him again in January 1980. These two non-Congress
governments under the Janata Party had nothing much to contribute to the evolution of the nation’s
foreign policy. Though they had promised to correct the tilt towards Soviet Union in the Indian
non-alignment and make it a genuine non-alignment, nothing significant happened.
A major foreign policy challenge was unfolding while the nation was going through the election
process in December 1979 when the Soviet Union militarily intervened in Afghanistan, a nonaligned
country on Soviet Union’s southern borders. Then Indian PM, Charan Singh called upon
the Soviet Union to withdraw its troops as early as possible and preserve the non-aligned character
of Afghanistan. But when the matter came before the UN for discussion on 12 January 1980,
Brajesh Mishra who was then India’s Permanent Representative said that India is opposed to the
presence of foreign troops or bases in any state. He also made an interesting statement that the
Soviet Union in the case of Afghanistan, had assured India that it would withdraw the troops
when the government in Kabul asked for it. He added: “We have no reason to doubt the assurances,
particularly from a friendly country like the Soviet Union, with whom we have close ties.” This
was totally going along with the Soviet Union amounting to alignment by a non-aligned country.
The statement was to trouble the Indian non-alignment policy even after the disintegration of the
Soviet Union.
This was more in tune with what Gandhi would have said than reflecting the approach of the
Janata Party government then in power. She, while campaigning, had said in an interview to
France’s Europe Radio Station that the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was “a danger to
India.” Brajesh Mishra’s statement also did not reflect Charan Singh’s earlier position on the
issue.
This literally brought the US-Soviet Union Cold War to the Indian northwestern borders. The
US asked India to help it in getting the Russians out of Afghanistan. The US was interested in
performing a Vietnam in reverse in Afghanistan to the Russians. As America was forced to withdraw
dishonourably from Vietnam in 1974, the US wanted to force Russians to experience what that
dishonour means in a nation’s life. Russians had that experience in 1988.
Since India did not agree to cooperate with the US against the Soviets, Americans turned to
Pakistan for support. Pakistan readily agreed to be a conduit to transfer weapons to Afghan
guerrillas (Mujahidins) at a total military and economic aid package of $7.4 billion. This
transformed the region into a terrorist hub-terrorism strengthened by religious fanaticism in the
name of Jihad ever since then.

6.5 RAJIV GANDHI AND THE INDIAN PEACE KEEPING
FORCE IN SRI LANKA

As Indira Gandhi inherited Afghan crisis from previous government, her successor Rajiv Gandhi
inherited so to say an ethnic crisis in Sri Lanka, which began in a big way in 1983. But Mrs.
Gandhi had handled the crisis as a disinterested mediator between Sri Lanka and the Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) who were demanding a separate Tamil state in the north-eastern
Sri Lanka.
But under Rajiv Gandhi the crisis took a turn for the worse. Earlier Rajiv Gandhi had asserted the
Indian interest in extending humanitarian aid to the beleaguered Tamils in Jaffna in the North as
the Sri Lankan government had imposed an economic blockade on the area. He had sent the
food grains by 20 boats but the Sri Lankans did not permit the supply to reach the needy. In June
1987, Indian air force dropped the supply for the people. This made it clear to the President
Jayawardane that he needed to understand the seriousness of the purpose exhibited by India.
However, as Sri Lanka was facing leftist, JVP threat on the South, Jayawardane requested help
from India in maintaining peace in the north. India and Sri Lanka signed an accord in July 1987.
Under the accord signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Jayawardane, the Indian troops were to be
sent to Sri Lanka to maintain peace in the North and East and also to accept arms laid down by
the LTTE. In return, for the militants accepting to return to peaceful life, the accord provided for
the merger of Tamil dominant areas in the North and East, holding of provincial elections, and
devolution of the powers.
But the distrust between the parties did not help in the smooth implementation of the agreement.
The Tamils perceived the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) as “Innocent People Killing
Force”. There was a demand for the withdrawal of the IPKF from Sri Lanka from both sides:
Tamils as well as the new president of Sri Lanka, Premadasa. Rajiv Gandhi’s successor, V. P.
Singh withdrew the IPKF; India not only lost face but also over 1000 Indian soldiers. There was
bad blood between all sides to dispute. As a result, LTTE plotted and a human bomb assassinated
Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991. Later the same forces were also responsible for assassinating
President Premadasa.

6.6 NARASIMHA RAO (1991-1996)

It goes to the credit of Narasimha Rao to survive as the Prime Minister of a minority government
and carry on with the foreign policy for a complete term of five years. He is the first Congress
Party PM outside the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty to do so. There were major foreign policy problems
faced by Rao government. By any account one major problem was of economic readjustment from a mixed economy to a
global one. This was not done as a conscious policy decision to move economy by following
liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (LPG). By the time Rao government assumed power,
India had an adverse balance of payments under which there was foreign exchange worth only
Rs 2000 to Rs. 2400 crores, enough to pay for imports of only 7 days.

6.7 INDIA–US RELATIONS

An economically weak government is always prone to foreign pressure. This situation was taken
maximum advantage by the only super power–the United States. The US did arms twisting in
pressurising Rao to economically open up the Indian market to the American penetration in areas
of computers, IT, and Telecommunications etc. India came under the American pressure to
rollback and cap its nuclear programme. India was compelled, under the US pressure, to abandon
the nuclear testing planned for 1995.
India has been stating that it wanted to retain its nuclear option, which became increasingly
difficult since the end of the Cold War. India joined the US in co-sponsoring the Comprehensive
Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and Fissile Material Control Treaty (FMCT). India, under Rao, did try
in 1995 to conduct tests in Pokharan but could not succeed as it was detected by the US. And
Rao had to shelve the programme.

6.8 FOREIGN POLICY DEVELOPMENTS AND THE NDA
GOVERNMENT

Atal Behari Vajpayee became the PM in 1998 leading a coalition government consisting of 13
political parties. But the government could not last beyond ten months. In the elections held in
October 1999, the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance was elected again to power. This is
the first ever coalition government to hold on to power for nearly four years.
6.8.1 Nuclear Weapons

During these ten months, its main foreign policy push came in the area of developing nuclear
weapons capability and trying to improve relations with Pakistan. The BJP has been a great
exponent of India going for nuclear weapons. Once it came to power, it planned for nuclear
weapons tests so that India can declare its status as a nuclear weapons state. On 11 May 1998
India surprised the world by conducting three nuclear tests. Two more tests were conducted on
13 May. Prime Minister Vajpayee declared that India is a nuclear weapons state, and also declared
that it would not conduct any more tests as all the necessary data had been collected. India,
Vajpayee said, would maintain only minimum nuclear deterrent.
It turned out that India was trying to test nuclear weapons in 1982 during Gandhi’s tenure and
later in 1995 when Narasimha Rao was the PM. But each time the preparations were made to
conduct the tests, the US intelligence was able to detect the Indian plans. Hence, it goes to the
credit of the BJP to have planned the nuclear tests and conducting them undetected.
6.8.2 Attempts to Improve Relations

In 1999 the Indian PM set himself to improve the relations with Pakistan. The first step he took
was with a Bus trip to Lahore to meet Nawaz Sharif, PM of Pakistan. During this trip PM
Vajpayee made a visit to Minar-e- Pakistan symbolising the Indian acceptance of the creation of
Pakistan based on Mohammad Ali Jinnah’s “two nations” theory.
As a matter of fact there was no such confirmation ever needed. Because after initial opposition
to the creation of Pakistan, the Hindu Mahasabha has become defunct and the Bharatiya Janata
Party, as the main ruling party in the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), never spoke in terms
of undoing the partition.
After the meeting in Lahore, the Pakistani PM said that it would be the year of decision on
Kashmir. The Indian External Affairs Minister, Jaswant Singh had said that after fifty years of
independence “the time for map-making in the region is over” indicating that there is no question
of changing of geography in the region.
The month of May 1999 saw the Kargil war between the two nations. As the two PMs were
discussing the future of their bilateral relations, the Pakistani Army was preparing for the war. The
war is significant as it was the first military conflict between the two nations after they acquired
nuclear weapons in May 1998. This was an effort by the Pakistani armed forces to alter the
status quo on the Line of Control so that whenever negotiations take place, the Pakistanis could
use it as a bargaining chip with India.
However, Pakistani Army Chief of Staff, General Pervez Musharraf in a bloodless coup in October
1999, deposed PM Nawaz Sharif. This sent into limbo all efforts to normalise relations with
Pakistan. India reacted to the military takeover in its traditional way. India then boycotted the
meeting of the SAARC and also saw to it that Pakistan was suspended from the Commonwealth
of Nations. India made another attempt at peace when Vajpayee invited Pervez Musharraf for
talks at Agra in early 2001. The talks collapsed as General Musharraf was adamant on his terms
to discuss the so called core issue of Kashmir.
The armed forces of Pakistan have dominated all institutions of the government in that country.
The cross border terrorism that has been the bane of the India-Pakistan relations since 1989 has
been only aggravated by the military dictatorship. The Indo-Pak relations were further spoilt
when on 13 December 2001, Pakistani terrorists tried to attack the Indian Parliament and eliminate
our top leadership. Fortunately our alert security forces engaged the terrorists in a forced gun
battle just outside the Parliament House, and killed all the five Pakistanis. India withdrew its High
Commissioner from Islamabad and snapped air, rail and bus links with Pakistan. The Indian
government has perforce moved closer to the only surviving Super Power in the world—the US.
Hence the question of the relevance of the Indian Non-alignment is now and then raised. Meanwhile,
Pakistan had once again moved very close to the US by promising full cooperation in the American
fight against the Taliban regime and Al Qaeda in Afghanistan.
As we have seen, non-alignment was the child of a bipolar world in which two poles were
intensely contesting for supremacy at all levels—ideological, economic, and political. But with
the end of one pole, the relevance of rival military alliances and competition to enrol every nation
on one side or the other is over. However, another facet of non-alignment is the fact that a nonaligned
country retains its independence of decision making unlike a nation aligned with a bloc
normally toes the line of the leader nation. In this sense India still retains her independence of decision-making.
In another sense, Indian non-alignment tilted towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War. But
now that Russia itself has moved closer to its former rival, there is nothing wrong in India moving
closer to the US. Earlier, during the Cold War, it used to be normal response of the policy
makers that it is not so much that India is leaning towards the Soviet Union but it is the other way
round. Similarly, if the US can be of help to promote the Indian national interest, there is nothing
wrong in India working in close cooperation with the US. However, India with other major
powers like the EU, and Russia is working towards bringing about a multipolar world. Meanwhile,
India adopted the “Look East” policy and swiftly moved to have closer relationship with the
ASEAN countries. India also moved closer to the European Union, Japan and Australia. By
2003, Sino-Indian relations had begun improving in a big way.
 
6.9 SUMMARY

The Indian foreign policy has undergone many radical changes in the last fifty-six years after
independence on account of many factors. One is the change in the international environment
with the end of the Cold War, and the emergence of the US as the only super power. Second,
domestic changes have occurred replacing one party government by a coalition government in
the 21st Century. Third, personality of the PMs has also changed as a consequence.
Yet, Indian foreign policy is woven within the framework of non-alignment. Though there is,
looking at the origin of non-alignment in the bipolar world, reason to question the relevance of
non-alignment, its relevance lies in the fact that India claims to retain its right to judge every policy
independently and formulate its own policy response. But India works to usher in a multipolar
world wherein she can emerge as an independent player along with others.
 
6.10 EXERCISES

1) Discuss Nehru’s contribution to the foreign policy of India.
2) How did Pakistan try to exploit the perceived weakness of Lal Bahadur Shastri? What was
the outcome?
3) “Indira Gandhi laid the foundation to make India a major power.” Justify this statement with
concrete examples.
4) Examine Rajiv Gandhi’s achievements and failures in foreign affairs.
5) Discuss the main achievements of India’s foreign policy during the initial years of the 21st
Century.

1 ORIGIN OF EARTH AND EVOLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

1
ORIGIN OF EARTH AND EVOLUTION OF
THE ENVIRONMENT
We live on a beautiful planet called earth, along with a wide variety of plants, animals and
other organisms. Our earth, however, is part of a vast universe. The universe is about 15 to
20 billion years old. The age of the earth is approximately 4 to 5 billion years, while human
beings evolved only around 2 million years ago. In this lesson, you shall learn how the earth
originated, how it got its own environment and in what ways human beings have been using
the environmental resources for their welfare and development.
 
OBJECTIVES

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:
• trace the origin of the earth;
• list the conditions, which make the earth a unique planet for supporting life;
• describe the sequence of steps in the origin and evolution of life prior to the
appearance of humans;
• explain the term environment;
• enumerate the various biotic and abiotic constituents of the environment.
 
1.1 EARTH AS PART OF THE UNIVERSE AND THE
SOLAR SYSTEM

Our earth, with all its diversity alongwith other planets and their satellites, the sun, the
moon, the many galaxies (huge groups of millions of stars) form the universe. There are
also countless asteroids and comets in orbit around the sun. All these are also part of the
universe. It extends much farther than can be seen by the most powerful telescope. No
one knows where the universe ends.

When you look up at the sky on a clear night, you see many points of light – most of which
are stars. Stars are huge balls of bright, hot glowing gases. The ‘Sun’ is also a star. It is the
star nearest to earth – about 150 mk (million kilometers) away. A solar system consists
of a star in the middle with a number of planets orbiting around it. The earth is a part of its
solar system. It is one of the eight planets of the solar system that has the sun (a star) in the
middle and the eight planets moving around it. Until recently solar system was believed to
have nine planets. However, on the basis of the latest scientific assessment, Pluto, is no
longer regarded as a planet of earth’s solar system.

1.2 ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE AND ORIGIN OF THE
EARTH

The widely accepted theory of the origin of universe is the “BIG BANG” theory. According
to this theory, universe started with a huge explosion and matter (dust and gases) filled the
entire space. The temperature of the universe then, was about hundred billion degrees
Celsius. Scientists believe that the big bang occurred about 15 to 20 billion years ago. The
huge collection of dust and gases then began to spin. As it spun faster and faster, the centre
became very hot. It became the Sun. From the edges of this ball of dust and gas, big blobs
or chunks of dust broke off and formed eight ball shaped planets. This founded our solar
system (Fig. 1.2). The earth broke off about 4.5 billion years ago with an explosion. It was
a burning hot white mass of gas and dust. Over a long period of time, dust and gas gradually
condensed to form solid rock. Such condensation and shrinking made the earth heat up so
much that the rock melted into a gluey liquid. After millions of years, the outer surface of
the earth or the earth’s crust cooled and formed hard rock again, just as melted chocolate
or wax solidifies upon cooling. The interior of the earth is still very hot.
Sun


The crust of the earth was formed from cooling and hardening of the molten matter and
hot gases. With cooling of the earth the crust hardened and formed the land. Cooling of the
earth also condensed water vapour into liquid water filling the depressions to form seas.

The earth with its blue skies, vast oceans and lush green forests is the home to wide variety
of organisms. It has its own unique atmosphere. The atmosphere also helps to regulate the
ambient (surrounding) temperature which is suitable for supporting life.
If you could dig a deep hole into earth the deeper you go, the hotter it becomes. At the
depth of about eight km it is hot enough to roast a human body. About 32 km deep you
would reach the part of earth which is called mantle. This is made of hard rock. The
centre or core of the earth is approximately 6,400 km from the surface having a temperature
close to 5000ºC. Much of the earth’s core is hot liquid (Fig. 1.3a)
Fig. 1.3a: Interior of the earth Fig. 1.3b: Rotation of the earth
Vast rotating mass
of gas becomes
spherical and
bulges at its
equator
Ring of matter flung
off from central
mass
Ring of matter cools,
contracts becoming a
solid planet in the oribit
of the central mass
which becomes sun
(a) (b) (c)
Crust (Upper lithosphere)
(Depth 45 kms)
Lithosphere
100 kms
Mantle
2900
Kms
Axis
Core
(1420 kms)
Environmental Science Senior Secondary Course
Notes

As you already know, once every 24 hours, the earth rotates on its axis like a spinning top.
So the day and night cycle is of 24 hours. A planet’s axis is an imaginary line passing
through the centre of the planet. (Fig. 1.3b). The earth not only rotates around its axis but
also revolves around the sun . The earth completes one full circle around the sun or completes
one orbit of the sun in 365¼ days. An orbit is the path along which a planet moves around
the sun.
While earth revolves around the sun, moon orbits the earth. The moon completes one
orbit in 27.33 days. The moon, as we know today, is without water and air and life. From
the space, the earth looks like a beautiful bright bluish planet because of its blue oceans.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1
1. Approximately how old is the earth?
______________________________________________________________
2. Name the star around which the earth revolves along with other planets of the solar
system.
______________________________________________________________
3. What do you mean by “solar system”?
______________________________________________________________
4. Why does the day and night cycle consist of only 24 hours?
______________________________________________________________
5. If you were to view earth from space, which colour would earth reflect?
______________________________________________________________
 
1.3 EARTH–THE UNIQUE PLANET WHICH SUSTAINS
LIFE

In our solar system, earth is the only planet which is known to sustain life. Only earth has
air and water to support life.
Let us briefly review the conditions on the other seven planets of the solar system.
• Mercury (Buddha) is closest to the sun. It has a temperature range of 427ºC on its
side facing the Sun and – 270ºC, on its dark side. It has no atmosphere.
• Venus (Shukra) is the closest neighbour of the earth. It is about 40 mk away. It is an
extremely hot planet with a temperature of 480ºC. Its atmosphere has 96% carbon
dioxide and poisonous gases like sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
• Mars (Mangal) is also close to earth. It is called the red planet. It has 95% carbon
monoxide and reddish dust. It is relatively a very cold planet and as of now presence

Origin of Earth and Evoluation of the Environment
of life on it has not been conclusively established.
• Jupiter (Brahaspati) is the largest planet of the solar
system. It is mainly a rapidly spinning ball of gas specially
clouds of ammonia, and has no solid surface.
• Saturn (Shani) consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.
Its atmosphere has 90% nitrogen and a temperature of
(-184ºC). It is also made up of hydrogen cyanide which
is a highly poisonous gas. It is characterized by a ring
that surrounds it.
• Uranus (Arun) is also a very cold planet. Uranus is a
distant planet of solar system and 7th in order from the
sun. Uranus and Neptune are the outermost planets of
the solar system. Uranus has a highly tilted rotational
axis.
• Neptune (Varun) is much smaller than earth, cold and
dark with its surface coated with frozen methane.
• Earth is the only planet known to sustain life.
Scientists do not know of any other planet in the universe
besides the earth, where there is life. There are hundreds of
stars in the universe and they have planets orbiting round them. But whether the necessary
conditions to support life exist there is not known.
As compared to other planets mentioned above, earth has the following unique conditions
which have enabled it to sustain life.
1.3.1 Conditions necessary for sustaining life
a. Presence of water
As already mentioned, during the evolution of the earth, water vapour in the primitive
atmosphere condensed into liquid water. This gave rise to the formation of oceans, rivers
and other fresh water bodies. Three-fourth of earth’s surface is covered with water.
Water is a universal solvent and life originated in water. Two thirds of a living organism
consists of water and 90 percent of cell content is also water. Biochemical reactions in
living organisms require an aqueous medium. Therefore, water is important for the survival
of living organisms.
b. Atmosphere
The earth is enveloped by a gaseous atmosphere that supports life. The earth’s atmosphere
consists of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), small amounts of carbon dioxide, water
vapour, ozone and rare gases like argon, neon etc.
Oxygen from the atmosphere is used by the living organisms during respiration. Oxygen is
necessary to oxidize food for liberating energy required for various activities in the living
organisms. Green plants utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
Neptune
Uranus
Saturn
Jupiter
Mars
Earth
Venus
Mercury
Sun


c. Temperature
The average temperature of the earth is 16ºC. This is the most comfortable temperature
for the living organisms to survive.
d. Buffering capacity of earth
The most unique feature of the earth is its buffering action due to which a neutral pH (pH-
7) is maintained in the soil and water bodies. The neutral pH is congenial for the survival
and sustenance of living organisms.
Earth gets light from the sun, the star nearest to earth, approximately 150 km away. It is
the ultimate source of energy.
Fig. 1.5: Solar radiations and life on the earth
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2
1. List the conditions that make earth a unique planet.
______________________________________________________________
2. From where earth gets energy?
______________________________________________________________
3. Why oxygen is essential for life?
______________________________________________________________

1.4 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE PRIOR TO THE
APPEARANCE OF HUMAN BEINGS

To begin with, conditions on earth were inhospitable for life. Gases of the primitive
atmosphere were primarily methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Water vapour
filled the atmosphere but there was no free oxygen. It was thus a reducing atmosphere on
primitive earth and no life existed.
Biological evolution- from the simple organisms to complex organisms
As earth cooled, water vapour condensed to form liquid water. Rains poured to form
water bodies on earth. The molecules of life were formed in the water.
From the molecules of the life evolved bacteria, the earliest and simplest organisms. The
oldest fossils of bacteria which were the first living organisms on earth have been found in
rocks that are 3-5 billion years old.
For almost two billion years, different kinds of bacteria lived on earth. One of these evolved
a green pigment called chlorophyll. These chlorophyll-containing bacteria used carbon
dioxide and water and released oxygen through photosynthesis and started accumulating
in the atmosphere.
Fig. 1.6: Diagrammatic representation of major events of life on earth
(mya = millions of years ago)
No life
Millions of
years before
present
600
1000 mya
2500 mya
3,500 mya
5000 mya
(Reducing
atmosphere)
Similar to
those living
today
evolve
RELATIVE
TIME SPAN
OF ERAS
THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
Era Period Epoh Age Some important
(million events in the
year) history of life
Recent 0.01 Historic time
Quaternary Pleistocene 1.8 Ice ages; humans appear
Pliocene 5 Ape like ancestors of humans appear
Miocene Continued radiation of mammals and
Cenozoic 23 angiosperms
Oligocene Origins of most modern mammalian orders,
Tertiary 34 including apes
Eocene Angiosperm dominance increases;
57 further increase in mammalian diversity
Paleocene Major radiation of mammals, birds,
65 and pollinating insects
Cretaceous Flowering plants (angiosperms) appear; dinosaurs
144 and many groups of organisms become extinct
Mesozoic Jurassic Gymnosperms continue as dominant plants;
208 dinosaurs dominant first birds
Triassie Gymnosperms dominate landscape;
245 first dinosaurs and mammals
Radiation of reptiles, origin of mammal-like
Permain reptiles and most modern orders of insects;
extinction of many marine invertebrates
285 Extensive forests of vascular plants;
Carboniferous first seed plants; origin of reptiles;
Paleozoic 360 amphibians dominant
Devonian Diversification of bony fishes;
408 first amphibians dominant
Siturian Diversity of jawless vertebrates; colonization of land
438 by plants and arthropods; origin of vascular plants
Ordovician First vertebrates (jawless fishes);
505 marine algae abundant
Cambrian Origin of most invertebrate phyla;
544 diverse algae
700 Origin of first animals
1500 Oldest eukaryotic fossils
Precambrian 2500 Oxygen begins accumulating in atmosphere
3500 Oldest definite fossils knows (prokaryotes)
4600 Approximate origin of Earth
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
Paleozoic
Precambrian
Continued photosynthesis by such bacteria progressively accumulated oxygen in the
atmosphere. Thus the atmosphere gradually transformed from reducing to oxidizing. At
one point of time oxygen content in the atmosphere become 21%.
Such changes served as a big trigger for biological evolution to begin and progress and this
led to the invasion of land by living organism.
As time passed, protists evolved from bacteria. Both bacteria and protists are unicellular.
Then came multicellular organisms, the fungi followed by plants and animals. Today the
diversity of living organisms is comprised of five kingdoms of life. Monera, Prototictista,



1.5 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENT

Every living organism is constantly interacting with its environment comprised of air, light,
water, land or substratum and the various kinds of living organisms.
The environment may be defined as the surroundings or conditions in which an organism
lives or operates. The environment broadly includes living and non living components
which are listed in the table given below.
Table 1.1: Components of the environment
Abiotic Biotic
Light, climate (humidity and temperature) Living organisms including plants,
atmospheric gases, water, substrata animals, microorganisms (bacteria,
(soil, river/sea bed). fungi, protozoa), and human beings.
A. Abiotic components
i. Light – Sunlight provides energy. Green plants utilize sun light for photosynthesis for
synthesizing food for themselves as well as all other living organisms.
ii. Rainfall –Water is essential for all living beings. Majority of biochemical reactions
take place in an aqueous medium. Water helps to regulate body temperature. Further,
water bodies form the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals.
iii. Temperature– Temperature is a critical factor of the environment which greatly
influences survival of organisms. Organisms can tolerate only a certain range of
temperature and humidity.

iv. Atmosphere - The earth’s atmosphere is made of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and
0.038% carbon dioxide. Rest are inert gases (0.93% Argon, Neon etc).
v. Substratum- Organisms may be terrestrial or aquatic. Land is covered by soil and a
wide variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it.
Roots of plants pierce through the soil to tap water and nutrients. Terrestrial animals
live on land. Aquatic plants, animals and microbes live in fresh water as well as in the
sea. Some microbes live even in hot water vents under the sea.
B. Biotic components
i. Green Plants – Prepare food through photosynthesis for all living organisms.
ii. Animals – Individuals of the same species occur in a particular type of habitat. They
also live with other species. One species forms food for another. Micro-organisms
and fungi decompose dead plants and animals releasing nutrients locked in bodies of
dead organisms for reuse by the growing plants.
Living organisms, therefore, need both abiotic and biotic components of the environment
for survival. A delicately balanced relationship between living organisms and their
environment is critically important for their survival.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.4
1. Define environment.
______________________________________________________________
2. Name its biotic components.
______________________________________________________________
3. List its abiotic components.
______________________________________________________________
4. In a sentence, mention why environmental degradation should be prevented.
______________________________________________________________
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
• The universe consists of galaxies of stars.
• Stars are huge balls of hot glowing gases. Sun is also a star.
• Our solar system is composed of the sun and eight planets moving around it.
• Earth is one of the planets of our solar system.
11
Notes
MODULE - 1
Environment through
Ages
Origin of Earth and Evoluation of the Environment
• The universe originated when there was a huge explosion that filled all the space with
dust and gases.
• The ball of dust and gases spun fast which gave out great heat and the very hot centre
broke off as the sun.
• It is believed that planets broke off from the periphery of this hot ball of dust and
gases.
• The earth has three parts namely the core, the mantle and the outermost crust.
• The earth rotates in its orbit around the sun; and also rotates upon on its own axis. This
rotation causes day and night cycle.
• The earth is the only planet in the solar system which can sustain life as it has water,
atmosphere, suitable temperature and gets sufficient light from the sun.
• The age of the earth is 4 to 5 billion years and life first originated on earth 3.5 billion
years ago as evidenced by the oldest fossils found till now.
• The atmosphere of primitive earth was very different – hot and full of gases carbon-dioxide,
water vapour, methane, ammonia and hydrogen but no oxygen. When earth
cooled, water vapour condensed into liquid water and fell as rains.
• How the first cell came into existence is still unknown, but perhaps the single celled
bacteria were among the earliest organisms. Through biological evolution millions of
different kinds of organisms have evolved subsequently.
• All organisms depend on their environment for survival.
• All organisms live in close association with their environment.
• Environment is defined as the surroundings of an organism.
• The environment comprises of non living (abiotic) components like temperature, light,
water, humidity etc. and living or biotic components such as other organisms sharing
those surroundings.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Trace the origin of the earth.
2. Describe briefly the solar system to which the earth belongs.
3. State the big bang theory of origin of universe.
4. Why is earth able to sustain life while no other planet is known to have life?
5 Name the five kingdoms of living organisms.
6. Define environment. List the various components of the environment.
Environmental Science Senior Secondary Course
Notes
12
MODULE - 1
Environment through
Ages
ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
1.1
1. 4.5 billion years
2. Star
3. Planets orbiting central star
4. Because earth completes one full rotation s on its axis in 24 hours
5. Blue
1.2
1. (i) Presence of water (ii) Presence of Air (iii) Comfortable range of temperature
(iv) Buffering capacity
2. Sun
3. Oxygen is used in respiration to oxidize food for liberating energy.
1.3
1. Methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
2. Bacteria
3. Because of photosynthesis
4. Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia
1.4
1. Surroundings or condition in which an organism lives and operates.
2. Biotic- living organism of all kinds including microbes.
3. Abiotic – light, humidity temperature, atmosphere and substratum
4. Because it threatens the survival of living organisms including humans.

UNIT 5 INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Pakistan: India's most important neighbour
India and Sri Lanka
India and Nepal
India and Bangladesh
Let Us Sum Up
Some Useful Books
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to critically analyse the relations of India with its South
Asian neighbours viz Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. The relationship has
been examined from different perspectives covering the political, economic and other
bilateral issues. After going tl~roughth is unit, you should be able to:
0 Critically analyse India's policy towards its neighbours; and
Identify the main issues that strain India's bilateral relations with its neighbours.
 
5.1 INTRODUCTION

The present states-system of South Asia emerged in the wake of the withdrawal of
the British Raj from the India sub-continent. These states are all geographically
proximate - most of them are part of a distinct geographical entity, the sub-continent
oflndia. Even the Maldives and Sri Lanka, which are separated from the sub-continent
by stretches of sea, are linked through other factors - common civilization heritage,
ethnicity, religious and linguistic affinities and existence ofcloser and enduring interaction
determined::by the fact of geographical proximity as well as by juxtaposition to the
regional pole, India.
However, an important feature oftheir interaction has been the asymmetry of India in
relation to her neighbours as well as her dominance and centrality in that states-system.
It is not merely that India is bigger and more populous than its neighbours. It is not
merely that tecl~nologicallya nd militarily India's achievements surpass that of others,
Pakistan included. But it is also a characteristic of the regional interaction that it is
marked more by India's bilateral relations with her neighbours than by the generality
of relations inter se.
Another important feature has been regional conflicts and tensions. A generic cause
has been this asymmetry, and this has been compounded by a divergence of basic
strategic perception. India has inherited the British Raj's strategic perception of a
sub-continental defence system based upon a view of the close proximity ofthe region.
But all her neighbours subscribe to the theory of 'threat perception' of India and see
her as an entity against which security is necessary.
There have also been some problems bequeathed to these states by the British Raj
and some that cropped up due to their own policies. In the former category we can list
Country Profiles: India these problems as their undefined borders, the status of Indian residents living in these
neighbouring countries and related migration problems etc. while in the second category
each neighbouring country is surrounded with problems of their own creation. Pakistan
has a military coup, and before that successive changes of government; due to dismissal
of elected Prime Ministers. Sri Lanka remains enmeshed in the ethnic crisis compounded
by a civil war situation. The entire Royal family ofNepal was assassinated on the first of
June 200 1. Assassinations took place in the context of incremental violence perpetrated
by the Communist Party (Maoist) in that country. There have been ten changes of
government since the restoration of democracy there in 1990. Bangladesh went through
a new election in October 2001 under incremental violerice and disruption of law and
order. Bhutan remains challenged by dissidence amongst its Nepalese subjects and the
presence of separatist movements from North-Eastern India on its territory. Thus
structuring of practical and stable relations with its neighbours is quite a complex challenge
which India has faced over the last several years especially because with each one of its
neighbours, India has a number of issues which remain unresolved, whether it is the
question ofKashmir, problem of illegal migration and enclaves in adverse possession with
Bangladesh and so on.

PAKISTAN: INDIA'S MOST IMPORTANT
NEIGHBOUR

The history of India-Pakistan relations since the partition of India creating two countries,
India and Pakistan can be analysed through a review of the nature of the problems and
di~utews hich kept the; two countries engaged in hostile, strained and conflictual
interactions and even in major wars. These adverse relations have already resulted in
.four full-fledged wars and India is now facing a proxy war conducted by Pakistan in
Jammu and Kashmir aimed at separating this Indian state from the rest of India. In public
perception and more so in the perception ofour,armed forces, Takistan remains identified
as an adversary, as an enemy although in terms of history, culture, language, religions and
geography both countries have much in common.
Let us try to understand why the situation between India and Pakistan remains adrift in
adversity when geographical, locational, historical connections, and socio-cultural
commonalities, ethnic aqd linguistic affinity would have led to harmony rather than
confrontation.
Both countries are at loggerheads with each other because of lack of communications,
mutual apprehensions and deliberately nurtured misunderstandings. Let us first try to
understand Pakistan's apprehensions. Pakistani elite have a bitter memory of the opposition
to the partition from the IndianNational Congress which the Muslim League had to face.
Consequently, the Muslim League did not get Pakistan of the geographical parameters
which it expected. It is one of ironies of hist-ry that many of those who now live in
Pakistan did not approve of the two-nation theory. The pro-Pakistan movement drew its
main strength from Bengali Muslims and Muslims ofNorth-Central India, even this support
did not come from the Muslim masszs but from the Muslim elite. We must remember that
till Jinnah was eclipsed as a leader ofthe Indian National Congress by Mahatma Gandhi
and Jawahar La1 Nehru, he was lionized as an ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity. The
Pakistani view is that the machinations of Lord Mountbatten and and the Indian National
Congress prevented the emergence of a Pakistan encompassing the entire Muslim
population of India. This bitterness still permeates the psyche of the Pakistani power
structure
India's strong action in Jammu and Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh heightened this
bitterness and more importantly, generated a genuine apprehension that India would try to
nullify the partition by sdbverting the state of Pakistan, either by breaking it up or by
reabsorbing its territory illto what the Pakistanis called Hindu plans of 'Akhand Bharat'.
India's stand on the distribution of military resources and for foreign exchange reserves
convinced Pakistan that I~dihaa d disruptive plans. The disparity in size, population and
resources between the two countries fuelled these annrehensions.
' India's role is the iiberation of Bangladesh only reinforced this Pakistani fear psychosis.
Ifthis is so, why did Pakistan indulge in ~nilitarya dventures against India in 1948 and
31965'? Probably, the answer lies in the subconscious desire to rectify the unfair
arrangements of the partition. The conflict of 1971 tempered Pakistan's inclination
towards military adventurism for getting even wit11 India, but short of that its power
structure continues to have the same mindset.
India and its
Neighbows
In the backdrop of the above facts etlveloping the India-Pakistan relations, let us
examined some ofthe important developments that took place between two nations.
Besides the initial probleins of partition as mentioned cursorily above like the problem
of natiwe states in which the state of Junagarll, Hyderabad and Kashmir were finally
acceded to India much against Pakistan desire and the problem of sharing of water
of rivers of Ravi, Sutlej and Beas which also was amicably settled between the
cor~ntrietsh rough an agreement concluded between the two countries on September
t 10,1960, the main problem which is souring the relation between the two countries
I pertains to Kashmir. Therefore, it is important to describe in detail the so-called
'Kash~nir Dispute' between the two nations as it is the only bone of contention
between them.
Kashmir Dispute
The erstwhile native state of Jammu and Kashmir, having total area of 86,024 square
miles. is predominantly populated by Muslims and was ruled by a Hindu Maharaja,
Maharaja Hari Singh. He did not take acy decision regarding the state's accession
before or immediately after August 15, 1947. The Maharaja was planning to declare
his state as an independent country. But this vacillation on the part of Maharaja
prompted Pakistan to irlvade with the help oftribesmen from North-Western Frontier
Province. They launched the attack on October 22, 194'7 and within a short period
of'tjvc. days reached Baramulajust 25 miles away from Srinagar. Overawed by this
attack Ilari Sing11 decjded to seek India's help and pleaded with the Goveniment of
India iha: he is willing to sign the l~istruniento f Accession in return for saving the
state. The accessioli of Jammu and Kasllmir was finalized by 27 October, 1947 and
thc armj. was airlifted to clear the aggression. While accepting the accession of the
Stste of Jammu and Kashmir. India had said that after the aggression is vacated the
wishes ofthe people of Jammu and Kaslimir would be ascertained. Pakistan did not
:rccept this accession and called it an aggression by India. Pakistan in the meanwhile
installed a so-called Azad Kashmir government in the territory occupied by the
invaders. In tlle meantime, India had inoved to the Security Council under article 35
of the Charter, In fact the decision of the Nehru government to offer plebiscite to
ascertain the wishes of the people of Jammu and Kashmir seemed to be a serious
mistake as it is this cl?use the support ofwhich Pakistan has taken to prolong its case
with regard to Kashmir:
The Security Council took many decisions on this issue starting with the appointment
of a three member Commission on January 20, 1948, which was subsequently
expanded and came to be known as United Natiotis Commission for India and Pakistan
(UNCIP). The UNCIP conducted enquiry, met representatives of both lndia and
Pakistan and finally submitted a report on December 11, 1948. This report contained
the following recommendations aimed at ending the hostilities and holding of plebiscite.
First, Pakistan should withdraw its troops from Jammu and Kashmir as soon as
possible after the cease fire and that Pakistan should also try for withdrawal of
tribesmen and Pakistan nationals who are not ordinary residents of Kashmir. Second,
the territorythus vacated by Pakistani troops should be administered by local oflicials
under the supervision of the Commission. Third, after these two conditions are
fulfilled and India is informed about their compliance by the UNCIP, India should
also withdraw substantial strength of its troops. Finally, pending a final agreement
India should maintain only such limited troops as should be essential for law and
order: After initial reluctance Pakistan accepted these proposals and a cease fire
agreement was signed which was implemented by the two commanders on the
Country Profiles: Indlr midnight of January, 1949. The war ended and a cease fire became effective. It is to be
pointed out here that the Indian army was in a position to push the invaders out and
liberate the whole state when suddenly the cease fire was announced.
The cease fire line (now called the Line of Control) was drawn where the fighting ended.
An agreement on ceasefire line was reached in Karachi on 27" July, 1949. It left 32,000
sq. miles of J & K territory in possession of Pakistan which is called Azad Kashmir by
Pakistan. Subsequently, many proposals and commissions were formed by the United
Nations but none of them was able to resolve the Kashmir tangle. In the meanwhile, the
Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise, ratified the State's accession
to India on February 6, 1954. A Constitution of the State was adopted on November 19,
1956 which declared Jammu and Kashmir to be an integral part of India. India's stand
now is that with the ratification of accession by directly elected Constituent Assembly of
Kashmir, the promised 'ascertaining of pishes' of the people had been accomplished.
India finalized accession on January 26, 1957.
The Kashmir issue has been raised time and again by Pakistan in the United Nations and
other international forums. It has been harping on religion of majority of people as the
basis for Kashmir becoming a part of Pakistan. But for India it is a matter of faith that
religion should not be the basis of political actions. Pakistan is actively indulging in crossborder
terrorism and is killing innocent people in Kashmir. It has already waged four wars
to take revenge from India despite India's best attempts to normalize relations between
the two countries.
 
5.3 INDIA AND SRI LANKA

Another important neighbour ofIndia in the south is Sri Lanka, an island republic situated
in the Indian Ocean. Sri Lanka got its independence from British on February 4, 1948.
Like India, Sri Lanka is an active member of Non-aligned Movement (NAM) right from
196 1 when it was founded. It is also a member of South Asian Association of Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) and has full faith in the United Nations and the ideal of world
peace. Thus, this southern neighbour of India has so much in common with this country
that one cannot but believe that there can be any areas of conflict between the two.
India-Sri Lanka relations have generally been cordial, through there have been tensions
caused mainly because of ethnic conflict between people of Indian Origin - mainly Tamils
- living in Sri Lanka and the Sinhalese. Usually a small country is suspicious of a big
neighbour. But, India has never tried to play the role of a dominant big neighbour. India's
foreign policy has always been based on friendship with all its neighbours. Despite ethnic
problems of Sri Lanka, India has never sought to impose its will on Sri Lanka.
The Tamil Problem:
Jaffna Province in northern Sri Lanka has a large concentration of Tamil people. The
problem became serious when Tamils began demanding a national homeland or Republic
of Eelam in an area of about 18000 sq. km. in northern Sri Lanka. There are essentially
two categories of Tamils in Sri Lanka. There are about one million people, whose
forefathers migrated from India in ancient times. They are known as Ceylon Tamils. The
other category includes another about one inillion people, many of them without citizenship,
who went to Sri Lanka during the nineteenth century. The problem oftheir status dominated
early India-Sri Lanka relations. The conflict with Ceylon Tamils came later. The Sinhalese
fear Tamil domination, and that is the principal reason behind the conflict.
After independence justice was assured to the Tamils by the then Prime Minister of Sri
Lanka, Dudley S. Senanayeke. But after his death discrimination against Tamils started.
Although an agreement was concluded with the Tamils by Prime Minister Bandaranaike
but it could not pacify the Tamils. The Tamil youth who had lost faith in non-violence
organized themselves into the Liberation Tigers. The aim of the 'Tigers' is a sovereign
Tamil state or Eelam. The earliest efforts made for finding a solution to the ethnic problem
was an agreement signed in 1953 by the Prime Minister of India Pt. Nehru and Prime
Minister of Sri Lanka, Kotelawala. Tamils alleged that Nehru-Kotelawala Agreement
was not implemented sincerely. Consequently, large number of persons of Indian
origin could not get citizenship of Sri Lanka and they became 'stateless persons'. This
caused serious tensions in India-Sri Lanka relations which were aggravated by the
1956 language disturbances. Sri Lankans blamed India for these disturbances
Problem of Stateless Persons
On October 1964 after prolonged negotiations between Prime Minister of India, La1
Bahadur Shastri and Sri Lankan Prime Minister, Mrs. Bandaranaike an agreement
was signed to resolve the problem of stateless persons. It sought to solve the problem
of about 9 lakh 75 thousand stateless persons in Sri Lanka. About three lakhs of these
people were to be granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and about 5 lakh 25 thousand persons
were to be given Indian citizenship. The fate of remaining I lakh 50 thousand stateless
persons was to be decided in future. During her second tenure as Prime Minister,
Mrs. Bandaranaike visited India in 1974 and her talks with Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi resulted in a fresh agreement whereby half of these persons were to be given
citizenship of Sri Lanka and the rest would become Indian nationals. Thus, this issue
of stateless persons was sought to be peacefully settled.
The Kacchativu Dispute
A territorial dispute arose in regard to the ownership of a one square mile uninhabited
island, called Kacchatiw, off the Jaffna coast in the Palk straits. Pilgrims from both
India and Sri Lanka used to go to Kacchativu Island every year in the month of March
during the four-day St. Anthony's festival for worship at the local Roman Catholic
Church. India protested over the presence of Sri Lankan police during the festival in
1968. This caused conflict. Both India and Sri Lanka were keen to avoid a serious
situation. The Prime Ministers of India and Sri Lanka met twice and pending a final
decision on the issue of island's title, resolved to maintain status quo in and around the
island. Neither India nor Sri Lanka would send its policemen in uniform or custom
officials, or resort to aerial reconnaissance or naval patrolling of adjacent waters during
the St. Anthony's festival. Finally, through a comprehensive agreement India accepted
Sri Lanka's ownership of the Kacchativu Island.
The Ethnic Conflict
The ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka between Tamils and Sinhalese assumed serious
proportions in 1983. It was described as 'ethnic explosion' and the 'Sri Lankan Carnage'.
During 1983-86 two lakh Tamils became refugees as they lost their homes. Thousands
were killed and wounded. Despite all-party talks, peace eluded the island Republic.
Finally an attempt was made by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi to help Sri Lanka find a
solution to the ethnic violence. On the invitation of Sri Lankan government, Indian
Prime Minister paid to two day visit to Colombo and concluded an agreement to
provide for ~ndianP eace Keeping Force (IPKF) to be posted in Sri Lanka to restore
normalcy in the strife-torn areas.
In accordance with Rajiv-Jayawardene agreement hundreds of thousands of Indian
troops were sent to Sri Lanka for maintenance of peace. But the posting of IPKF
proved to be costly for India. Crores of rupees were spent on Indian troops trying to
restore order. Hundred of Indian soldiers were killed in clashes with the Tamil
extremists. Even then ethnic conflict could not be brought under control. Having
realized the futility of IPKF, India decided to pull its troops out. By March 1990 all the
Indian troops were recalled.
The separatist movement in Sri Lanka had an adverse effect on India-Sri Lanka
relations, although India had taken all positive steps to ensure that Indian Territory
was not used for anti-Sri Lanka activities. Nonetheless, sending of Indian troops had
its fall out and during the run-up to the Lok Sabha, former Prime Minister Raj iv Gandhi
was assassinated in an alleged human bomb explosion.
India and its
Neighbours
Country Profiles: India The present President of Sri Lanka, Mrs. Chandrika Kumarantunga visited India which
created an atmosphere of better understanding between the two countries. India continues
to favour a peaceful solution to ethnic crisis in Sri Lanka within the framework of
sovereignty and territorial integrity of that country through negotiation and without outside '
interference. India welcomes the recent proposal of Sri Lanka for devolution of power to
secure some element of autonomy to the areas largely inhabited by Tamil minority.
Check Your Progress I
Note: i) Use the space below for your answers.
ii) Check your progress with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What is UNCIP? What were its main recommendations?
2) How was the Kacchativa dispute between India and Sri Lanka resolved?

5.4 INDIA AND NEPAL

Nepal, the only Hindu kingdom in the world, lies in the north of India. India's interest in
Nepal was natural for historical, religious and strategic reasons. India's security was
perceived to be closely related to Nepal in the north.
Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1950
On 3 1" July, 1950, both countries signed Treaty of Peace and Friendship and initially
Indo-Nepalese relations have been based on this treaty. After the signing of the treaty,
India established seventeen check posts to watch the passes between Tibet and Nepal
and Bhutan. These posts were jointly manned by Indian and Nepalese personnel. An
Indian military mission was also established in Kathmandu for the organization and training
ofNepalese army. Nehru was keen that Nepal must enjoy all the attributes of independence
and sovereignty. Even during the democratic movement against the autocratic regime of
Ranas, India adopted the attitude of restraint and patience.
Nepal assumed greater importance in India's security perception after the Sino-Indian
border war of 1962. India's desire for improvement of relations was reciprocated. Nepal
King's 13 day visit to India and President Radhakrishnan's return visit further cemented
the improved relations. Relations were further improved when Foreign Minister of India,
Sardar Swaran Singh visited Nepal in 1964 and signed an agreement of large economic
assistance to Nepal. The King of Nepal also visited India in 1965 and conferred with
Indian Prime Minister, La1 Bahadur Shastri. Nepal gave full support to India's position on
Kashmir. The King appreciated the economic assistance being provided by India to his
country. However, the bilateral relations received another setback when a border dispute
relating to Susta region arose. This region was claimed by Nepal in 1966. This onesquare
mile territory on Bihar-Nepal border remained a subject of dispute. Finally, a
boundary commission was appointed to resolve the issue.
I Economic assistance to Nepal
In the field of economic assistance, by 1967, India had extended over Nepalese P4 l pees 50 crores for Nepal's economic development and had pledged another Rs. 40 ctores.
India was the single largest donor by 1967. Road building and power development
were two major areas in which India assisted Nepal. India also helped NepaI in the
construction of the Kingdom's first airport at Kathmandu. But by this time China had
become an important factor in Nepal's economic and political relations. King Mahendra
reaffinned Nepal's decision to stay neutral between India and China. For India, however,
China factor in Nepal's foreign poIicy had opened a dangerous situation.
In the meantime, anti-India demonstrations were repeatedly held in Nepal. Nepal
made public demands for the withdrawal of Indian personnel from the northern check
I posts and its military liaison group in Kathmandu.
I
The demand of withdrawal, however, was contrary to treaty provisions and Nepal
was questioning the very basis of Indo-Nepalese relationship. It was believed in New
Delhi that the Palace was trying to play China against India and now even Pakistan
against it. However, by early 1971 Nepal realized the futility of anti-India campaign.
Eventually that would have hurt Nepal's own economy. Negotiations were opened
and a New Treaty of Transit was signed in Kathmandu in August 1971. Thus, by the
end of 197 1, Indo-Nepal relations started Iooking brighter.
King Birendra succeeded his father Mahendra when the latter died in early 1972.
Under his reign, Nepal began to work for better and normal relations with India. India
participated in Nepal's development of power and irrigation, the major projects being
the Kosi, the Gandak, the Karnali, the Trisuli and the Devighat and Pokhra Hydel
projects. India and Nepal planned the harnessing of Himalayan rivers. There were
Indian aid and cooperation activities in areas such as road building, airport construction,
telecommunication, horticulture, agriculture, forestry, education and health.
The friendly relations with Nepal were further consolidated after Mrs. Gandhi returned
to power in 1980. King Birendra visited India in 1981 and the visit was returned by
I President Sanjiva Reddy the same year. However, being a big power, and a neighbour
of Nepal, China had been taking keen interest in Nepal. China had been trying to
widen the rift between India and Nepal whenever tension developed in the bilateral
relations. However, India continued to be Nepal's main trading partner. During 1984-
85 Nepal's 52 percent of total export-import trade was with India. Most of the goods
produced in Ihdia and needed by Nepal are usually made available without much
difficulty.
The age-old system of absolute monarchy in Nepal was replaced by constitutional
monarchy on April 8, 1990. King Birendra agreed to the demands of the people for
putting an end to partyless panchayat system. The King agreed to a new constitutional
arrangement in which he would continue to be head of state, but the governance
would be responsibility of a Cabinet answerable to Parliament. Elections would be
held on the basis of multi-party system. Eventually the partyless democracy was
t replaced by party-based parliamentary democracy.
India and its
Neighbours
Economic relations between the two countries improved on account of liberalisation of
their economies since 1991. The Treaty of Trade and Transit of 1991 and their
amendments in 1993 have also had positive results. During 1992-94 period India's
commitment to Nepal's economic development continued to be expressed through
various programmes. India andNepal signed atreaty on the development of Mahakali
Project during Prime Minister Deuba's visit to India in February, 1996. This project
represents a major breakthrough in the harnessing of river waters for mutual benefit.
The two countries are working through Joint Technical Level India-Nepal Boundary
Committee on a time bound programme for identification of boundary. Thus India's
hand of friendship remains extended to Nepal.
Country Profiles: India

5.5 INDIA AND BANGLADESH

The birthGf ~aii~ladesinh D ecember 1971 was a direct outcome of the Indo-Pakistan
war in which Pakistani troops surrendered u~iconditioliallyin erstwhile East Pakistan.
The emergence of Bangladesh was described as an event of major importance in the
Sub-continent. India was forced to liberate East Pakistan as it was faced with an
unprecedented crisis caused by massive influx of 10 million refugees and all efforts by
the Indian Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi to persuade Pakistan for a negotiated
settlement with Awami League leaders bore no fruits.
On March 9, 1972 both countries vgned a treaty of Friendship and Peace. Mrs Indira
Gandhi assured Bangladesh of India's full support and cooperation in securing its admission
to the United Nations. This Treaty was signed for a period of 25 years. Pakistan was
disturbed at the signing of the Treaty of Friendship and Peace and'klescribed it as a
virtual military alliance. But study of provisions of the Treaty makes it clear that it was
signed to strengthen bilateral relations and promote regional peace and international
cooperation. It was certainly not a military pact against any country or bloc of countries.
The signing of friendship treaty was followed by the conclusion of a comprehensive
trade agreement of March 25, 1972. Thus the Treaty of Friendship and the Trade
Agreement were concluded in the spirit of equality and mutual benefit, friendship and
good neighbourliness.
Sharing of Ganga Water
'The biggest bone of contention between India and Bangladesh relates to sharing of
Ganga waters. This dispute is mainly concerned with sharing ofwaters during lean season,
January to May, particularly mid-March to mid-May, when the flow of Ganga reduces to
minimum level of 55, 000 cusecs. The crux of the problem is that if India withdraws
40,000 cusecs which is the barest minimum required to flush Hooghly to save Calcutta
port, Bangladesh then receives only 15,000 cusecs which is highly insufficient to meet its
needs. The extraction of this larger amount of water by India gives rise to multifarious
problems in Bangladesh. Thus, the dispute between India and Bangladesh relates to
equitable sharing of Ganga waters by the two countries. The Farakka Barrage built by
India on the river Ganga is situated on the Bengal- Bihar border near Farakka about 400
km. North of Calcutta. The primary reason for the constniction of this Barrage was the
preservation and maintenance ofthe Calcutta port aid navigability of Bhagirathi-Hooghly.
Now that the barrage is constructed Calcutta port is saved but diversion of water for the
port became an issue of international discord and misunderstanding. Although different
agreement were concluded to regulate the water of Ganga and to resolve the Farakka
barrage issue but the final agreement was concluded between the two governments in
the year 1996. Sheikh Hasina government negotiated with India a treaty for sharing
Ganga waters for 30 years. India was represented by H.D.Deve Gowda, the prime
minister of India. The main feature of this Treaty regarding sharing of Ganga water at
Farraka is that Ganga water at Farakka would be determined by 15 blocs of 10 day
period from January 1 to May 3 1 every year.
The New Moore Island Dispute
There have been tensions between India and Bangladesh over certain territorial claims
also. These include the dispute over New Moore Island, the problem related to the Teen
Bigha corridor and the clash in Muhuni Char in the Belonia sector. Of the three the
dispute over New Moore Island persists as a major problem. New Moore Island covering
an area of 2 to 12 sq. km., depending upon rising and receding of tide, is located in the
Bay of Bengal. It is about 5200 meters from the nearest Indian coastal point and 7000
meters from Bangladesh coastal point. Indian flag was hoisted on the island on March
12,1980 and subsequent to that all problems arose. Bangladesh questioned the ownership
rights of India. The dispute has remained unresolved though it has been discussed at
different levels.
I
Indo-Bangladesh relations were adversely affected on account of dispute regarding
Till Righa corridor also. During Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's tenure this small patch
of an acre of Indian Territory called Teen Bigha was leased out to Bangladesh. Tliis
agreement of leasing could not be imp!emented as it required a constitutional amendment.
Other Bilateral issues
Among other problems in lndia Rangladesh relations is the problem of Chakma refugees
who have mostly taken shelter in Indian state ofTripura. Negotiations during 1994 led
to the repatriation of Chakma refugees from Tripura to Chittagong Hill tracts in
Bangladesh. Most of them have already been repatriated and some are still awaiting
their repatriation.
India is facing another problem of Bangladeshi migrants, majority of them belonging to
weaker sections who have settled in different parts of India. Their number, which is
estimated to be more than 10 lakh people, burdens the Indian economy. Despite Lndia's
repeated requests Bangladesh government is taking no action for their recall and Indian
government is left with no choice but to take stem measures to deport them to Bangladesh.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: ij se the space below for your answers.
ii) Clheck your progress with the model answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Describe the nature of economic relations between India and Nepal in the 1990s.
2) What are the central issues in Indo-Bangladesh dispute over sharing of Ganga
waters?

5.6 LET US SUM UP

One of the cornerstones of India's foreign policy has been to build a strategically
secure, politically stabie and harmonious and econo~nicallyc ooperative neighbourhood.
lndia has always given a high priority to friendly relations with our immediate neighbours.
India's relations with Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh as discussed above
give a clear indication of India's desire to avoid conflicts, to seek peaceful settlement
of international disputes and build friendship with all the neighbours. Many of India's
neighbours are non-aligned and have generally responded to India's approach of peace.
Nevertheless, India has had moments of conflicts and even regular wars. Despite
India best efforts to cultivate most friendly relations with Pakistan by initiating so
Inany unilateral decisions without expecting a retum favour ( Priilie Minister 1.K.GujralYs
"Gujral Doctrine"giving whatever Indiacan to its neighbours without expecting in return
as lndia is a bigger country - Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee's Lahore Bus
Service, Agra Summit etc.) Pakistan gave in return Kargil War and increased crossborder
terrorist activities. Pakistan continues to internationalise the Kashmir issue.
Indian Parliament was attacked by Pakistan's supported terrorists. In fact Pakistan is
trying to destabilise India in every possible manner and is perfect example of state
which is supporting terrorism against a neighbouring country.
India has good relations with all other neighbours. The new governments installed in
Nepal and Sri T anka have euvreqsed their desire to consolidate and strengthen relations
India and its
Neighbours '
with India. Purposive efforts contin
as well as political cooperation. Close proximity between India and its neighbours is
evident from the continuing visit of its Prime Minister and King to India who were here
right in the month of March 2003. Likewise the Prime Ministers of Sri Lanka has also
visited India recently. Except perhaps Pakistan all other India's neighbours including
mighty China are havingvery cordial relations with India. This underlies India's tremendous
faith in good neighbourliness relations.

5.7 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Dutt, V.P.(1984). India k Foreign Policy. New Delhi: Vikas.
Rasgotra M., Chopra V.D. & Mishra 5.P. (1990). India S Foreign Policy in the 1990s.
New Delhi: Patriot Publishers.
Mansingh Lalit. (1998). Indian Foreign Policy-Agenda for the 21" Century. Vol.11,
New Delhi: Konark Publishers.
Khilnani R.K. (2000). RestructuringIndia B Foreign Policy. New Delhi: Commonwealth.
Dixit J.N. (2002). India k Foreign Policy - Challenge of Terrorism. New Del h i: Gyan.

5.8 ANSWERS TO CHECKYOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1
1) LTNCIP is the United Nations Commission for 1ndia and Pakistan which was appointed
by the UN Security Council in 1948. . The UNCTP enquiry report submitted in
December 1948 contained the following recommendations aimed at ending the
hostilities and holding of plebiscite: First, Pakistan should withdraw its troops from
Jam~nu and Kashmir as soon as possible after the cease fire and that Pakistan
should also try for withdrawal of tribesmen and Pakistan nationals who are not
ordinary residents of Kashmir. Second, the territory thus vacated by Pakistani troops
should be administered by local officials under the supervision of the Commission.
Third, after these two conditions are fulfilled and India is informed about their
compliance by the UNCIP, India should also withdraw substantial strength of its
troops. Finally, pending a final agreement India should maintain only such limited .
troops as should be essential for law and order.
2) The status of Kacchativa, an uninhabited island off the Jaffna coast, became an
issues between India and Sri Lanka in the late 1960s. It was resolved through
bilateral talks, when India accepted Sri Lanka's ownership of the island
Check Your Progress 2
1 ) Both the countries launched economic liberalisation programmes at around the same
time in the early 1990s. India renewed the Treaty of Trade and Transit in 199 1 and
committed to Nepal's economic development through various programmes. India
and Nepal signed a treaty on the development of Mahakali Project in 1996. This
project seeks to harness river waters for mutual benefit
2) This dispute is mainly concerned with sharing of waters during lean season,
particularly mid-March to mid-May, when the flow of Ganga reduces to minimum
level of 55,000 cusecs. The crux of the problem is that if India withdraws 40,000
cusecs which is the barest minimum required to flush Hooghly to save Calcutta
port, Bangladesh then receives only 15,000 cusecs which is highly insufficient to
meet its needs. Thus, the dispute between India and Bangladesh relates to equitable
sharing of Ganga waters by the two countries.